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Chamber History: Chronology-Part 1
(1903-1953)
1903
The idea of
consolidating a number of existing business organizations with
overlapping functions into a new organization is discussed
during a meeting of businessmen on Feb. 3 at the home of Harry
L. Pierson, president of Pierson & Hough Co.
The Detroit
Board of Commerce is officially formed during a June 30 meeting
in the Turkish Room of the Cadillac Hotel with 253 charter
members who paid $100 each to join. The first slogan is “For the
general good of Detroit.” Michael J. Murphy, president and
treasurer, Murphy Chair Co., is the first president.
The Detroit Board of Commerce assists in bringing Packard
Motor Car Co. to Detroit and backs a plan for the city to
acquire and expand the Detroit Museum of Art, forerunner of
today’s Detroit Institute of Arts.
1904
The Detroit Board of Commerce celebrates its first
anniversary by taking members on a Great Lakes cruise, beginning
an annual tradition that will survive until 1980. The cruises
are the forerunner of today’s Leadership Policy Conference.
The Detroit Board of Commerce assists in organizing the
Convention and Tourist Bureau.
The Detroit Board of Commerce takes steps to protect
businessmen from fraudulent solicitors.
1905
The Detroit Board of Commerce encourages the transfer of the
Burroughs Adding Machine Co. to Detroit and assists in bringing
the Morgan & Wright factory to Detroit.
1906
The Detroit Board of Commerce purchases the former Dr. Brodie
homestead for use as its headquarters. This site will remain the
organization’s home for 59 years.
The Detroit Board of Commerce submits a plan to the city for
enlarging Belle Isle by filling it in.
1907
The Detroit Board of Commerce joins the National Board of
Trade, now the U.S. Chamber of Commerce
The Detroit Board of Commerce works with immigration
authorities at Ellis Island to encourage workmen to come to
Detroit to relieve a local labor shortage.
1908
The Detroit Board of Commerce compares tax assessments in
Detroit with other cities and brings about substantial
reductions.
The Detroit Board of Commerce urges the Detroit Police
Department to regulate street traffic during rush hours.
1909
The Detroit Board of Commerce arranges a convention to
promote freer trade relations with Canada.
1910
The Detroit
Board of Commerce entertains President William Howard Taft at a
sumptuous banquet at the Light Guard Armory.
The Bulletin
of the Detroit Board of Commerce, a monthly magazine, makes
its first appearance in September.
The Detroit
Board of Commerce advocates for a Zoological Park for Detroit,
forerunner of today’s Detroit Zoo.
1911
The Bulletin
of the Detroit Board of Commerce becomes the Detroiter, the
name it still has today. Over the years, the Detroiter is
a monthly, a weekly, a bimonthly and again a monthly
publication.
The Detroit Board of Commerce moves to temporary quarters
while its former headquarters is demolished and a new,
three-story building valued at $500,000 is constructed on the
same site. From 1906 to 1911, membership grows from 500 to over
3,000.
1912
The Detroit Board of Commerce notches one of its first major
successes during the Good Roads for Michigan campaign,
culminating with voter approval of a $2-million bond issue and a
half-mill tax to improve Wayne County’s deplorable roads.
The Detroit
Board of Commerce organizes into three divisions: Public
Affairs, Business Development and Organization Affairs, each
reporting to the executive committee, board of directors and
advisory council.
The Detroit
Board of Commerce promotes a “Made in Detroit” campaign that
includes a major downtown exhibition. The Board is also largely
instrumental in bringing about the State Tax Conference of 1912,
which reformed Michigan’s outdated tax laws.
1913
The cornerstone is laid on Feb. 6 at the new Detroit Board of
Commerce building. After a luncheon at the Pontchartrain Hotel,
a marching band leads an official entourage in a procession to
the site of the new building. The completed building is
dedicated on Oct. 7. This building, later expanded and remodeled
by a different owner, will be the organization’s home for 52
years.
The Detroit
Board of Commerce conducts a successful “Made in Detroit”
exposition and assists in securing Saturday closing of leading
downtown stores.
The Detroit
Board of Commerce compiles and publishes a recreational survey
of Detroit and outlines a five-year program of development, thus
initiating a playground system and a new Department of
Recreation.
1914
An educational
program sponsored by the Detroit Board of Commerce helps raise
public awareness of the annual Babies’ Milk Fund. To reach the
widest audience, the campaign is carried out in English, Polish,
Italian and Yiddish.
During a winter
economic crisis, the Detroit Board of Commerce secures work for
8,000 unemployed and cares for over 600 families.
1915
The Detroit
Board of Commerce organizes the most complete Industrial Welfare
Exhibit in the United States and organizes the first
Salesmanship Club in the world.
The Detroit
Board of Commerce creates an Americanization Bureau, the first
such movement in this country, and establishes a night school
plan which serves as a model for other cities. It also publishes
a “Manual of Instructions” to aid immigrants in becoming
American citizens.
1916
French actress
Anna Held makes a special appearance before Detroit Board of
Commerce members and guests, relating her experiences as a nurse
and entertainer on World War I battlefields. The United States
is not yet involved in the war.
The Detroit
Board of Commerce conducts its first “Clean-Up” campaign, making
Detroiter a cleaner and healthier place in which to live.
The Detroit
Board of Commerce helps bring about a reduction in the equalized
value of Wayne County by more than $350 million, thus reducing
taxes on businesses.
1917
With U.S. entry
into World War I, the former reading and lounge room at the
Detroit Board of Commerce building is transformed into campaign
headquarters for the American Red Cross.
The Detroit
Board of Commerce helps organize the Better Business Bureau.
1918
The Industrial
Bureau of the Detroit Board of Commerce serves as headquarters
for the resources and conversion section of the War Industries
Board of Michigan.
With the end of
World War I, the Detroit Board of Commerce works out a plan for
placing returning soldiers in jobs and completes war
reconstruction plans.
The Detroit
Board of Commerce helps handle a serious fuel situation and
facilitates vital rail shipments.
1919
The Royal
Abyssinian commission, headed by the brother of the African
nation’s queen, visits the Detroit Board of Commerce during a
mission to Detroit to inspect manufacturing facilities.
Abyssinia is now known as Ethiopia.
The Detroit
Board of Commerce takes a close look at housing for African
Americans in Detroit. A remarkable expose in the Detroiter
blames “rapacious landlords” and others for the “vicious” and
“unjust” conditions and candidly states that “. . . in Detroit,
it is impossible for a Negro man or woman to secure decent
quarters for himself or his family.”
The Detroit
Board of Commerce successfully campaigns for a $50-million
appropriation for good roads for Michigan.
The
Aeronautical Committee of the Detroit Board of Commerce urges a
municipal airport and airmail service for Detroit.
1920
The Detroit
Board of Commerce’s Hotel Committee addresses the shortage of
hotel rooms in Detroit. The situation is so bad that the board
asks its members to list spare rooms with the Board’s Room
Service Bureau.
The Detroit
Board of Commerce’s Americanization Committee hires James H.
Russell, instructor in government and history at Detroit Junior
College, to do a thorough survey of the “radical” or Bolshevik
menace in Detroit.
The Detroit
Board of Commerce begins advocating for a waterway to link the
Great Lakes with the Atlantic Ocean through what eventually will
become known the St. Lawrence Seaway.
Author Frederic
Van Rensselaer Dey, creator of the fictional detective “Nick
Carter,” addresses the Detroit Board of Commerce’s annual father
and son dinner.
1921
Through its
Americanization Committee, the Detroit Board of Commerce opens
two branches of its Alien Free Information Bureau -- one for
Polish and one for Italians.
The Detroit
Board of Commerce organizes the Detroit Industrial Safety
Council and helps organize both the Merchants Credit Bureau and
the Stores Mutual Protective Association.
1922
Lola Wilson
McLean, an instructor at Detroit Commercial College, becomes the
first female member of the Detroit Board of Commerce. She sends
in her application card within an hour after the Board changes
it bylaws to include women as members.
A “No Accident
Week” campaign led by the Detroit Board of Commerce’s Safety
Council is credited with cutting industrial accidents by 37.5
percent.
The king and
queen of Romania visit the Detroit Board of Commerce.
Commerce
Secretary Herbert Hoover, later president, addresses the Detroit
Board of Commerce.
The Detroit
Board of Commerce wins a 10-percent reduction in freight rates
for Detroit industries.
The Detroit
Board of Commerce launches a “What-Do-You-Know-About-Detroit
Committee” to take members on guided tours of Detroit landmarks.
1923
The Detroit
Board of Commerce initiates a Congressional campaign that
results in a larger appropriation for the Detroit Post Office,
averting collapse of the local postal service.
The Detroit
Board of Commerce’s goals for the new year include: electing a
competent mayor, car line extensions, another municipal golf
course, a new Belle Isle bridge, a municipal pier, a new art
institute building, a municipal aviation field and a bigger and
better auto show.
83-year-old
William Stocking retires after serving for 20 years on the
executive staff of the Detroit Board of Commerce. He was the
board’s official historian and statistician.
The Detroit
Board of Commerce takes part in a friendly contest with
Cleveland’s chamber of commerce to see which city will have the
largest percentage of its registered voters at the polls. The
contest is endorsed in a telegram from President Calvin
Coolidge.
To keep its
members off the “sucker list,” the Retail Merchants Association
of the Detroit Board of Commerce issues permit cards to bona
fide solicitors. No card, no money.
The dial
telephone makes its debut in Detroit. Detroit Board of Commerce
President Harold H. Emmons receives the first call on the new
automatic Cadillac exchange from Detroit Mayor Frank Doremus.
Charlie Chaplin
is the guest of honor at a dinner hosted by the Detroit Board of
Commerce. Dinner tickets sell for $3.
1924
Child star
Jackie Coogan is a guest of the Detroit Board of Commerce while
in Detroit to raise money for the Million-Dollar Milk Ship for
children in the Near East. Decades later, Coogan will portray
“Uncle Fester” on TV’s “The Addams Family.”
The Detroit
Board of Commerce urges the mayor to appoint safety engineer to
control traffic problems and curb the dangerous activities of
“motor morons.” The Board also conducts a nationwide search for
a traffic engineer.
The Detroit
Board of Commerce successfully advocates for a living wage for
Detroit postal employees who stand face to face with the
poorhouse. “Could you raise a family on $116 a month?” asks a
headline in the Detroiter.
In an early
example of regionalism, the Detroit Board of Commerce fosters
the metropolitan concept through formation of the Michigan
Metropolitan Conference.
The Detroit
Board of Commerce saves Detroit shippers thousands of dollars in
switching charges by helping to defeat plans to increase
railroad switching rates.
1925
The Detroit
Board of Commerce leads the crusade to make Detroit the nation’s
aviation capital. As part of the campaign, the board beats the
drum repeatedly for a municipal airport in Detroit. William A.
Mara, managing editor of the Detroiter, makes aviation his
special cause.
In an early
example of regionalism, the Detroit Board of Commerce
successfully secures overnight freight services to 32 cities and
towns in Southeast Michigan.
Faced with a
cash crunch, the Detroit Board of Commerce sells its building at
320 W. Lafayette Blvd. to Detroit Free Press publisher Edward
Stair. After the building is expanded and remodeled by its new
owner, the Board moves back in as a tenant and remains for
another 40 years.
The Safety
Council of the Detroit Board of Commerce helps develop Detroit’s
first traffic lights.
The Detroit
Board of Commerce conceives and organizes the first Commercial
Reliability Tour for the Ford Trophy, one of America’s foremost
air events, later known as the National Air Tour.
The Detroit
Board of Commerce helps secure and name a new train between
Detroit and Washington – the “Red Arrow.”
1926
The Detroit
Board of Commerce continues to fight for a municipal airport and
organizes Stinson-Detroit Aircraft Corp.
The Detroit
Board of Commerce conducts a biennial census of manufacturers
for the government.
1927
The Aviation
Department of the Detroit Board of Commerce surveys aircraft
industry and activities in the Greater Detroit area. It lists 60
companies either directly or indirectly involved in the aircraft
industry.
The Detroit
Board of Commerce brings together all of the cities, villages
and townships in Southeast Michigan to tentatively establish
boundaries for a Metropolitan District for Detroit, embracing
all or parts of Wayne, Oakland, Macomb, Monroe and Washtenaw
counties. This is done at the request of the U.S. Census Bureau
in advance of the 1930 Census.
The Detroit
Board of Commerce finances and sponsors the 17th
Gordon-Bennett International Balloon Race and conducts the Third
National Air Tour for commercial airplanes
The Detroit
Board of Commerce establishes an Arbitration Committee to
facilitate the speedy settlement of commercial disputes without
going to court.
Directors of
the Detroit Board of Commerce vote their official approval of
the proposed Detroit-Windsor Tunnel after touring New York
City’s Holland Tunnel.
1928
The Detroit Air
Olympics, sponsored by the Detroit Board of Commerce, are held
at Ford Airport. Meanwhile, the Board steps up its campaign for
a major public airport to serve Detroit and Wayne County. The
Paris Chamber of Commerce gives the Board a medal for its work
on behalf of aviation.
The Detroit
Board of Commerce comes out fighting against a proposal to
establish a state income tax. Bowing to the pressure, Michigan’s
governor backs off and scuttles the bill.
For the Silver
Anniversary Cruise of the Detroit Board of Commerce, the
palatial steamer Noronic takes cruisers around the Great
Lakes to Mackinac Island and Muskegon.
1929
The Fire
Prevention Committee of the Detroit Board of Commerce receives
the Grand Award in the 1928 Inter-Chamber Fire Waste Contest
sponsored by the U.S. Chamber of Commerce.
By fighting
for non-discriminatory and non-prejudicial freight rates before
the Interstate Commerce Commission, the Detroit Board of
Commerce saves iron and steel shippers millions of dollars.
The
Detroiter’s first, brief mention of the stock market crash
appears on Nov. 11 in the “Getting Around” column where author
Helen Giller refers to “the recent stock-flop.” Two weeks later,
the Detroiter reprints an optimistic cartoon from the Chicago
Tribune showing “Business as Usual” triumphing over reckless
speculators.
1930
A portent of
things to come: The Detroiter features an article on a Detroit
company that is the only organization in the world manufacturing
and marketing a complete line of receiving sets for television
broadcasts.
1931
Representatives
from the Detroit Board of Commerce, the Detroit Department of
Public Health and the Wayne County Medical Society receive a
bronze plaque certifying Detroit as the winner in the U.S.
Chamber of Commerce’s Health Conservation Contest.
1932
Edward S.
Evans, president of the Detroit Board of Commerce, is named
chairman of the Detroit Drive, the anti-hoarding campaign
initiated by President Herbert Hoover to get money back into
banks and general circulation.
The Detroit
Board of Commerce urges the U.S. Chamber of Commerce to study
Prohibition from an economic and taxation perspective.
The Federal
Home Loan Bank Board designates the Detroit Board of Commerce as
the authorized agent for stock subscriptions in the Federal Home
Loan Bank, an early response to the Great Depression.
1933
The Detroit
Board of Commerce gives its full support to new President
Franklin D. Roosevelt’s emergency banking legislation as banks
across the country close during a “Bank Holiday” designed to
stabilize the nation’s banking system.
The Detroit
Board of Commerce celebrates its 30th anniversary and
applies for a renewal of its charter. “We go into our next 30
years with entirely new rules for business, with readjusted
philosophy and with old principles knocked into a cocked hat,”
notes the Detroiter.
In the depths
of the Depression, Detroit is driven to the brink of municipal
bankruptcy. With no cash, city employees endure payless paydays,
and scrip is issued to pay municipal bonds. A plan devised by
the Detroit Board of Commerce, however, spares the city from
defaulting on its bonds.
The Detroit
Board of Commerce lends cautious support to FDR’s National
Recovery Act (NRA) and the “Blue Eagle Campaign.” But the board
later takes issue with the collective bargaining clause in
National Industrial Recovery Act (NIRA) and rails against “union
agitators.”
1934
Despite the
deepening Depression, the annual Detroit Board of Commerce
cruises continue. In a sign of the times, this year’s cruise is
dubbed the “Michigan Recovery Cruise.” The vessel Greater
Detroit takes Board members to Mackinac Island and Upper
Peninsula ports.
The Detroit
Board of Commerce hosts the 14th annual Middle West
Foreign Trade and Merchant Marine Conference.
1935
Detroit Public
Schools Superintendent Frank Cody heads the Detroit Board of
Commerce’s annual clean-up campaign. This year’s slogan is: “For
Health, Happiness and Prosperity – Clean up, Fix Up, Paint Up.”
1936
The Detroit
Board of Commerce co-hosts a testimonial dinner for noted local
author Edgar A. Guest, who wrote a number of books including the
popular “A Heap o’ Livin.’”
In a continuing
attack on the Depression, the Detroit Board of Commerce sponsors
the “Keep Detroit Payrolls Growing” movement. Teams of
businessmen lead the campaign, chaired by Lawrence P. Fisher.
1937
The Detroit
Board of Commerce goes on record in opposition to FDR’s
controversial “court packing” legislation to put more New
Deal-friendly judges on the Supreme Court, which is ultimately a
resounding failure.
1938
The Detroit
Board of Commerce celebrates its 35th anniversary
during a dinner at the Hotel Statler with 87-year-old Michael E.
Murphy, the board’s first president, as guest of honor. Tickets
are $3 each.
1939
Thanks to the
efforts of the Detroit Board of Commerce, Detroit wins first
award for cities of over 500,000 in the 1938 Fire Prevention
contest sponsored by the U.S. Chamber of Commerce.
The Detroit
Board of Commerce launches the “Nothing Stops Detroit” campaign.
Phase 1 features a series of hundreds of exhibits and displays
to prove that Detroit has advanced industrially since the end of
the “boom” period ending with 1929. Phase 2 is an organized move
to increase the Board’s annual budget from $158,000 to $250,000
so it can do an even more aggressive job in spurring industrial
growth and building payrolls.
1940
The Detroit
Board of Commerce issues a booklet called “Labor and The
Detroiter” containing excerpts from many articles publishing
during the last few years warning businesses about labor unions
and Communism.
National
Foreign Trade Week is observed, even as war clouds gather. A
special issue of the Detroiter is published in the interest of
825 Michigan firms “whose materials and products interlace trade
routes of the world.”
1941
Even though the
United States is not yet at war, the Detroit Board of Commerce
is already involved in a number of defense-related activities
including defense housing, draft deferments, training, aircraft,
plants and machinery and trucking.
The Detroit
Board of Commerce presents a series of radio broadcasts each
Friday evening over W45D, the Detroit News FM station. The
purpose is to impress Detroiters with the importance of the
Detroit Region as a great industrial center and the part it is
playing in the national defense program.
1942
With U.S. entry
into World War II, national defense is the No. 1 priority, and
225 Detroit Board of Commerce members formally pledge their
support to the Board’s program of defense-related activities.
The Detroit
Board of Commerce works closely with Detroit shippers seeking
more effective ways to cooperate with the Office of Defense
Transportation in expediting the movement of war materials.
1943
The Detroit
Board of Commerce’s annual “Clean Up, Paint Up and Fix Up”
campaign this year includes a tagline promoting war bonds, and
the 40th anniversary cover of the Detroiter
dramatizes Detroit’s role as the “Arsenal of Democracy.”
The annual
Detroit Board of Commerce cruise gets serious. This year’s
cruise is called a War Production Clinic Cruise with such topics
as war manpower, war labor board, priorities, wartime industrial
finance, war contracts and sub-contracting, labor supply and
training and price control-material allocations.
The torch is
passed to a new generation when Harry Lynn Pierson of the
Detroit Harvester Co. is elected president of the Detroit Board
of Commerce. He’s the son of Harry L. Pierson at whose home the
Board’s formative meeting was held in 1903.
1944
The Detroiter
runs a series of articles on Detroit’s postwar plans.
1945
As the war
ends, the Detroit Board of Commerce turns its attention to
promoting Victory Loans as a “thank you” to returning veterans.
The Board and its members raise more than half of Wayne County’s
entire Victory Loan total.
This year’s
Detroit Board of Commerce cruise aboard the vessel Greater
Detroit includes a preview of Detroit’s postwar products.
The Detroit
Board of Commerce sets up an agricultural program with the theme
“Prosperity From the Ground UP” – the first full-scale
agricultural program in the Board’s history. It is founded on
the principle that Detroit’s prosperity is directly dependent on
the prosperity of the farmer who is its chief industrial
supplier.
1946
As the postwar
era begins, the Detroit Board of Commerce pledges to minimize
strike losses, to obtain impartial conciliation and mediation
and to avoid government intervention.
1947
The Detroit
Board of Commerce’s Committee on Economic Education works to
make sure returning World War II veterans get the higher
education they need and deserve.
The Detroit
Board of Commerce enthusiastically supports the Taft-Hartley Act
as a means of correcting the “abuses” unleashed by the New Deal.
The top two
officers of the Detroit Board of Commerce – Executive Vice
President Harvey Campbell and President Sherwin Hill – travel to
Mexico to discuss trade opportunities with the Mexico City
Chamber of Commerce and other business leaders.
1948
The Detroit
Board of Commerce successfully fights the War Department’s
decision to mothball Selfridge Field near Mount Clemens. William
A. Mara of the Bendix Aviation Co., longtime chairman of the
Board’s Aviation Committee, leads the campaign.
In conjunction
with several other organizations, the Detroit Board of Commerce
sponsors a Conference on World Trade and Affairs at the Masonic
Temple.
This year’s
cruise celebrates the 45th anniversary of the Detroit
Board of Commerce. The vessel “Greater Detroit” takes cruisers
to Cheboygan, Mich., and Sheboygan, Wis.
The Detroit
Board of Commerce helps organize the Businessmen’s Conference on
Urban Problems, called by U.S. Chamber of Commerce, at the Hotel
Statler. One of the issues is the movement of industry,
residences and retail businesses from the center of the city to
peripheral areas.
The Detroit
Board of Commerce’s Aviation Committee is primarily responsible
for increasing the number of airlines serving Detroit from three
scheduled passenger lines in 1941 to seven in 1948.
1949
The annual
cruise takes Detroit Board of Commerce members to Sault Ste.
Marie, Mich., and Kenosha, Wis., about the steamer Greater
Detroit.
1950
The annual
cruise takes Detroit Board of Commerce members to Menominee,
Mich., and Marinette, Wis., again aboard the Greater Detroit.
1951
Officers of the
Windsor Chamber of Commerce present a gavel and plaque to
officers of the Detroit Board of Commerce in honor of Detroit’s
250th birthday. The gavel is made of wood from the
old French pear trees first brought to this area by the original
French settlers in 1701.
A Roseville man
receives the first $1,000 Harvey Campbell Scholarship in
Business Communications at Wayne University (now Wayne State
University) from Harvey Campbell, executive vice president of
the Detroit Board of Commerce.
With the Korean
War coming, Charles T. Fisher Jr., president of the Detroit
Board of Commerce, petitions Defense Mobilization Director
Charles E. Wilson to eliminate the “dog legs” Detroit defense
suppliers have to follow in order to secure decisions from
Washington. The Board wants direct contact to Washington without
going through regional offices in St. Paul, Chicago,
Indianapolis and Cleveland.
There is no
Detroit Board of Commerce cruise this year! No boat is
available.
A sign of the
things to come: The Detroiter takes note of fact that “suburban
growth tops that of Detroit” and goes on to note -- quite
accurately -- that “it is a phase that probably will continue.”
1952
After a
one-year absence, the annual Detroit Board of Commerce cruise
returns aboard the Tadoussac.
The Detroit
Board of Commerce sends a letter to Dwight D. Eisenhower
congratulating him on his election as president and urging
“vigorous efforts to establish the currency convertibility and
remove barriers to that free exchange of goods and services
which is essential to the strength of the free world.”
1953
The Detroit
Board of Commerce’s Golden Anniversary cruise takes Board
members to Quebec. The cruise includes tours of the St. Lawrence
Power Project on the St. Lawrence and Saguenay Rivers.
Reservations
for the Detroit Board of Commerce’s Golden Anniversary Dinner on
June 24 at the Sheraton-Cadillac Hotel are completely sold out.
Deputy Defense Secretary Roger M. Kyes, keynote speaker, talks
about “Re-Assessment of Our Defense Position.”
1953
George W.
Stark, historiographer of the city of Detroit, writes the
Detroit Board of Commerce’s official 50-year history. In the
Detroiter’s Golden Anniversary issue, Board President John S.
Coleman writes of the “challenge of the future,” citing the St.
Lawrence Seaway, federal taxation, customs simplifications,
reduction of trade barriers.
The Detroit
Board of Commerce’s Committee for a National Trade Policy is
founded on the belief that American leadership in the expansion
of international trade and the reduction of trade barriers is
essential to the prosperity and security of the United States.
The Detroit
Board of Commerce leads fight to preserve the National Labor
Management Relations Act, also known as the Taft-Hartley Act. It
warns of union “pork choppers” who do not have the worker’s
interest at heart and cites an alarming rise in wildcat strikes,
picketing and lockouts.
Chamber History: Chronology-Part 2 (1954-2003)
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